A full-chain simulation model for electron-bombarded active pixel sensors in low-light imaging

Electron-bombarded active pixel sensors (EBAPSs) have been widely used in low-light level night vision owing to their low-noise imaging performances under extremely low illumination. However, theoretical models of EBAPSs remain limited, resulting in insufficient prediction of their imaging performance. This study proposes a photon-to-gray conversion model that describes the full signal chain from optical input to digital output. A parameter calibration method was introduced, and the model was verified by comparing simulated images with experimental results obtained from a custom-developed EBAPS imager in an illumination-controlled dark lab. The comparison indicates that the average relative deviation in signal-to-noise ratio between simulation and experiment is within 10%. Furthermore, the simulated and experimental images exhibit consistent trends in limiting resolution with varying illumination. The validated model was further employed to investigate the influence of critical parameters on both SNR and resolution. This study establishes a reliable model that can complement or replace illumination-controlled dark lab testing in the performance evaluation of EBAPS imagers.