Instabilities of thermocapillary–buoyancy convection in open rectangular liquid layers

Jiang Huan^{1, 2}, Duan Li^{1, 2, †}, Kang Qi^{1, 2, ‡}

The source of hydrothermal waves in the free surface of liquid layers in constant Γ = 26 and various Pr: (a) Pr = 16; (b) Pr = 25; (c) Pr = 29. The cold side is left.