Instabilities of thermocapillary–buoyancy convection in open rectangular liquid layers

Jiang Huan^{1, 2}, Duan Li^{1, 2, †}, Kang Qi^{1, 2, ‡}

(color online) Hydrothermal waves in the free surface of liquid layers in the experimental condition of Γ = 34.7 and Pr = 16. The Marangoni number increases gradually from panel (a) to panel (c). The cold side is left.